PENDAHULUAN
A. Latar belakang
Agama yang merupakan sumber pedoman bagi umat manusia mempunyai pengaruh yang luar biasa bagi penganutnya, dalam tinjauan sosiologis. Agama dapat memberikan motivasi bagi tindakan sosial suatu masyarakat tertentu. Banyak penelitian tentang sejumlah tindakan-tindakan sosial pada masyarakat yang didasarkan pada motif Agama. Dalam hal ini Agama menjadi alas an bagi seseorang untuk melakukan tindakan sosial.
Sungguh pun banyak tindakan sosial yang didasarkan atas motiv Agama akan tetapi terdapat tindakan sosial yang murni.Anggota masyarakat yang menolong korban tanah longsor disebuah Desa umpamanya, dapat diidentifikasikan sebagai tindakan sosial sebagai sesama masyarakat, namun juga dapat diidentifikasikan sebagai tindakan Agama karena masyarakat tersebut adalah masyarakat yang berAgama. Oleh karena itu pendenifisian bebagai tindakan Agama semakin sulit dilakukan apabila masyarakat tersebut bukan masyarakat Agama.
Max weber menyatakan bahwa tindakan sosial individu dalam masyarakat dapat mempengaruhi individu-individu yang lainnya, begitupun tentang tindakan sosial individu seseorang yang berkenana dengan Agama juga akan mempengaruhi individu yang lainnya, lalu tindakan apa yang akan dilakukan individu atau masyarakat tertentu yang termotivasi oleh Agama?
Ali Syariati seorang tokoh filsafat Islam menjelaskan bahwa Agama (Islam,penyusun) dapat memberikan Motivasi besar bagi penganutnya sehingga menorehkan tinta Emas dalam peradaban Islam khususnya, dan peradaban Dunia pada umumnya.
Dalam kehidupan ini agama dan iptek harus berjalan secara seimbang hal itu dikarenakan adanya kemajuan zaman yang menuntut manusia untuk terus bersaing baik dalam bidang ilmu maupun teknologi, orang yang tidak mau mengikuti perkembangan zaman maka ia akan merasa dikucilkan oleh kehidupan itu dikarenakan kemajuan teknologi yang sudah sangat berpengaruh pada kehidupan manusia baik itu pengaruh dari luar ataupun dari dalam Negeri sendiri hal itu tidak bisa dihindarkan lagi.
Maka dengan adanya kemajuan zaman seperti ini seseorang dituntut untuk dapat mempelajari agama secara mendalam agar tidak hanyut oleh kemajuan zaman yang semakin canggih yang mungkin suatu saat akan membuat seseorang lupakan segala perintah dan larangana agama, sesuai dengan pepatah “ilmu tanpa agama akan buta sadangkan ilmu tanpa agama akan lumpuh”, dalam hal ini antara agama dan iptek harus berjalana sebanding agar dari segi iptek dapat membuat manusia berkembang lebih maju sehingga mampu untuk bersaing dengan Negara luar, sedangkan dari sagi agama dapat membuat seseorang merasa terbimbing dalam melakukan setiap tindakan sehingga tidak hudah untuk berbuat sesuatu yang dapat merusak dan merampas hak orang lain.
Dari uraian diatas maka penyusun merasa perlu untuk menuangkan sebuah tulisan tentang judul”Dampak kemajuan iptek dalam religi”. Yang dimana kemajuan iptek sendiri sangat berpengaruh kepada agam yang dimana dalam hal ini agama dituntut agar bisa mununtun umat kedalam suatu tindakan yang benar, baik bagi agama maupun masyarakat, bukan menjadikan agama hanya sebagai sesuatu iakatan yang hanya bisa mengekang seseorang dalam melakukan setiap tindakan.
B. TUJUAN
1. Untuk mengetahui paranan agama terhadap perkembangan iptek
2. untuk mengtahui dampak dari iptek terhadap masyarakat
3. bagaimana fungsi agama terhadap dunia modern saat ini
4. untuk mengetahui hubungan iptek dengan agama
5. untuk mengetahui dampak dari peranan agama terhadap iptek
BAB
II
DAMPAK KEMAJUAN IPTEK DALAM RELIGI
A. AGAMA
Hendro Puspito Dalam Buku nya Sosiologi Agama menyatakan bahwaAgama adalah suatu jenis system sosial yang dibuat oleh penganut-penganut yang berporos pada kekuatan-kekuatan Non-empiris yang dipercayainya dan diperdayagunakannya untuk mencapai keselamatan bagi diri mereka dan masyarakat luas umumnya.
Unsur-unsur yang hendak dirangkum dalam definisi diatas telah diterangkan dalam pembahasan sebelumnya.Untuk kongkritnya dapat disebut lagi dengan singkat sebagai berikut:
Agama disebut jenis system sosial, ini hendak menjelaskan bahwa Agama adalah suatu fenomena sosial, suatu pristiwa kemasyrakatan, suatu system sosial dapat dianalisis, karena terdiri atas suatu kompleks kaidah dan peraturan yang dibuat saling berkaitan dan terarahkan kepada tujuan tetentu.
Agama berporos pada kekuatan-kekuatan non empiris. Ungkapan ini mau mengatakan bahwa Agama itu khas berurusan dengan kekuatan dari dunia luar yang dihuni oleh kekuatan-kekuatan yang lebih tinggi dari pada kekuatan manusia dan yang dipercayai sebagai arwah roh-roh dan roh tertinggi.
Manusia mendayagunakan kekuatan-kekuatan diatas untuk kepentingannya sendiri dan masyarakat sekitarnya. Yang dimaksud dengan kepentingan (keselamatan ialah kelamatan didalam dunia sekarang ini dan keselamatan di dunia lain. Yang dimasuki manusia sesudah kematian (Yahya s. Praja, 2000, 41:45).
Thomas F. Odea
Thomas F.O Dea memakai memakai teori yang banyak dipakai oleh teori fungsional. Agama adalah pendayagunaan sarana-sarana supra-empiris untuk maksud-maksud non empiris atau supra-empiris.
Dalam definisi tersebut di atas bahwa pendayagunaan sarana-sarana supra-empiris semata-mata ditujukan kepada kepentingan supra empiris saja.seakan-akan orang yang berAgama hanya mementingkan kebahagian akhirat dan lupa akan kebutuhan mereka didunia sekarang ini. Hal itu tidak sesuai dengan pengalaman.Banyak orang berdo’a kepada Tuhan untuk keperluan sehari-hari yang dirasa tidak akan tercapai hanya dengan kekuatan manusia sendiri
Milton Yinger
o J.Milton Yinger melihat Agama sebagai system kepercayaan dengan praktek dengan suatu masyarakat atau kelompok manusia berjaga-jaga menghadapi masalah terakhir dari hidup ini. Dulop punya pendirian yang senada. Ia melihat Agama sebagai sarana terakhir yang sanggup menolong manusia bilamana manusia berada pada instansi lainnya gagal tak berdaya. Maka ia merumuskan Agama sebagai suatu institusi atau bentuk kebudayaan yang menjalankan fungsi pengabdian kepada manusia untuk mana tidak tersedia suatu institusi atau yang penangananya tidak cukup dipersiapkan oleh lembaga lain.
Joachim Wach
Bagi Joachim Wach aspek yang khusus diperhatikan ialah pertama unsur teoritisnya, bahwa Agama adalah suatu system kepercayaan. Kedua, unsur praktisnya, ialah yang berupa system kaidah yang mengikat penganutnya. Ketiga, aspek sosiologisnya, bahwa Agama mempunyai hubungan dan interaksi sosial.pada hakekatya jika pada suatu unsur tidak terdapat maka orang tidak dapat berbicara tentang Agama, tetapi itu hanya kecendrungan religius.
Dalam hal ini dapat dipertanyakan apakah sejumlah “isme”yang sudah dikenal luas merupakan Agama,jelasnya nasionalisme, komunisme, sekularisme, kebatinan, akan ratu adil. Atas pertanyaan diatas sejumlah sarjana seperti Elisabeth Nothingham menjawab bahwa”isme-isme”diatas dapat dimasukkan dalam pengertian Agama, dengan catatan bahwa itu semua bukan Agama “supra-empiris”tetapi hanya Agama secular.
Nicolas Luhmann.
Menurut Nicolas Luhmannaspek yang perlu diperhatiakan dalam definisi Agama adalah saspek fungsianal. Ia melihat Agama sebagai suatu cara bila mana suatu fungsi khas dimainkan dalam situasi evolusi oner yang berubah terus menerus.
Tindakan adalah prilaku manusia yang mempunyai maksud subjektif bagi dirinya,artinya tindakan yang merupakan petunjuk pola piker yang bersangkutan.Tidak semua tindakan menusia dinyatakan sebagai tindakan sosial, suatu tindakan baru dikatakan tindakan sosial apabila arti subjeknya dihubungkan dengan individu-individu yang lain. Oleh sebab itu tindakan sosial merupakan kenyataan sosial yang paling mendasar, yang menyangkut komponen-komponen dasarnya yaitu tujuan, alat, kondisi,nilai dan norma (Agama), (Thomas F. O’Dea, 1995, 34:37).
B. IPTEK
Secara kasat mata kita tidak bisa menghidari akan kemajuan-kemajuan ilmu dan teknologi pada zaman sekarang ini, walaupun banyak telah kita ketahui masyarakat-masyarakat kecil yang menjadi korban dari adanya kemjuan iptek, dan dalam hal ini banyak anak-anak kecil yang ikut merasakan dampak tersebut, hal ini terbukti banyaknya bangunan-bangunan yang menjulang tinggi di kota-kota besar, dan menelantarkan rasa kemanusiaan terhadap yang lain. Belum lagi alat-alat yang mereka gunakan serba mesin sehingga tenaga manusia seolah tidak dibutuhkan lagi.
Dewasa ini di negara berkembang khususnya di Indonesia sendiri para pemimpin membuat pernyataan-pernyataan yang didasarkan pada penafsiran sejarah, sehingga tanpa mereka sadari telah menanamkan Statemen keyakinan dan nilai ideologi dalam arti menanamkan komitmen emosional. Sehingga mayarakat menderita anomi akibat dari situasi sistem nilai dan komunitas yang baru dan berbeda semua itu dilakukan oleh para pemimpin guna mencari massa dengan menanamkan ideologi yang bersifat sekuler (Majalah Tarbawi, 2004, 34:35).
Tidak heran jika dalam suatu Negara khususnya seperti keadaan masyarakat di Indonesia sendiri banyak sekali terjadi tindakan-tindakan yang anarki yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang yang mempunyai tingkat keimanan yang sangat rendah, seperti halanya yang terjadi pada bapak-bapak wakil dari masyarakat sendiri yang dimana mereka seakan tidak mempunyai rasa malu sedikitpun dengan menggunakan uang Negara yang bersal dari masyarakat Indonesia sendiri yang mayoritas penghasillannya sangat minim. Seperti halnya yang terjadi pada kasus ICW yang mendesak pejabatnya untuk mengembalikan ONH ke DAU (dana abadi ummat), yang dalam hal ini para pejabat menunaikan ibadah Haji dengan memanfaatkan uang dana abadi umat yag dimana perbuatan ini sangat menyimpang dengan ajaran agama dan perbuatan tersebut tidak bisa ditelolir.
Perbuatan seperti ini sama halnya dengan melakukan tindakan korupsi walaupun ada sebagian dari pejabat Negara ini tidak mengetahui bahwa ongkos naik haji itu diambil dari DAU, namun meskipun mereka tidak sepenuhnya berslah mereka harus tetap mengembalikan dana yang telah mereka gunakan beserta fasilitas yang telah mereka gunakan sewaktu naik naik haji. Dari kasus ini kita dapat mengambil kesimpulan bahwa dalam melaksakan pemerintahan pejabat-pejabat kurang teliti dalam melaksakan tugas mereka sehingga banyak terjadi kecurangan-kecurangan dimana-mana.
(kutipan Metropolis, 2005:2).
Kasus yang telah diuraikan diatas itu hanya sebagian dari kasus-kasus yang terjadi di Negara ini yang dimana semuanya dikarenakan oleh adanya kemajuan iptek yang tidak dibarengi dengan pendidikan agama sehingga seseorang dengan mudah melakukan suatu tindakan yang jelas-jelas dilarang oleh agama. Dampak dari kamajuan iptek pada zaman modern sekarang ini banyak membuat orang selalu tidak berpikir panjang dalam melakukan suatu tindakan, terutama dalam hal Ekonomi. Telah kita ketahui banyak anak-anak muda menggunakan obat-obatan terlarang, minum-minuman keras, berjudi, bahkan membunuh sekalipun yang dimana semua itu semata-mata hanya untuk kesenangan dan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidup sehari.
Terkadang tidak jarang seorang wanita baik-baik melakukan suatu tindakan amoral guna mencapai suatu kedudukan yang tinggi, tanpa mengindahkan larangan agama. Dalam dunia modern saat ini agama seolah dianggap hanya sebagai status dari diri seseorang yang hanya berada dalam keterangan KTP, sedangkan ajaran-ajaran yang ada didalamnya hanya berfungsi sebagai pengusir setan atau jin agar tidak mengganggu, agama sama sekali tidak dianggap sebagai penuntu dan penerang pada jiwa manusi.
Semua itu terjadi dikarenakan ada sebagian orang beranggapan bahwa aturan agama hanya dapat mengekang, dan tidak dapat memberikan suatu kebebasan pada seseorang untuk melakukan suatu kegiatan guna mencapai suatu kesenangan hidup duniawi ( Abu Bakar, 1996, 97:98)
SARAN
Herdaknya agama dan iptek dapat saling melengkapi satu sama lainnya, hal itu dikarenakan dengan adanya perkembengan zaman yang menuntut manusia agar dapat lebih pintar dalam segala bidang, jika hal itu tidak mampu untuk dilakukan maka akan merasa terkucilkan dimata masyarakat, dan apabila seseorang jauh dari agama maka orang tersebut akan buta tidak tahu kemana arah hidup yang akan ia tujuan hal ini sesuai dengan kata pepatah yang mengatakan “ilmu tanpa agama akan buta, sedangkan agama tanpa ilmu akan lumpuh”.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Koran Metropolos. Kamis, 23, Bandung, 2005
Abu Bakar. Islam dalam perspektif sosiologi agama, Rajawali, Semarang, 1996.
Yahya s.Praja. Struktur filsafat ilmu dan ilmu-ilmu islam, Pustaka, Bandung, 1992.
Majalah Tarbawi. Menuju kesalahan pribadi dan umat, Syaamil Cipta Media, Bandung, 2004.
Thomas F. O’Dea, sosiologi agama, Raya Grafindo Persada, Jakarta, 1995.
KESIMPULAN
Dari uraian diatas dapat kita simpulakan bahwa paranan agama dalam kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi ini (iptek), sanagtlah penting hal itu dikarenakan segala sesuatu yang dilakukan dimuka bumi ini tidak bisa lepas dari peranan agama guna mebantasi garak manusia agar tidak berbuat apa yang ia sukai, tanpa memeperdulikan keadaan orang lain.
Dalam hal inipun iptek sangat berperanpenting guna membangun dan mengembangkan sumber daya manusi yang terlihat makin memburuk dimata internasinal, agar labih baik dan mampu bersaing dengan Negara-negara lainnya, namun kemajuan iptek sebdiri dilain pihak banyak membuat orang terjerumus dengan prilakunya sendiri, yang dengan tanpa sadar telah malakukan hal-hal yang dilarang oleh agama. Misalnya dengan melakukan sebuah perdagangan narkoba atau sejenisnya yang dimaksudkan akan mudah bersaing dan dianggap mampu menghidupi orang lain, dan tanps disadari telah merusak bangsa.
Selain itu dengan kemajuan iptek ini sendiri banyak sekali prusahaan-perusahaan yang lebih banyak menggunakan tenaga mesin dari pada tenaga manusia, sehingga menambah banyaknya pengangguran, dan melahirkan banyak terjadi kejahatan dimana-mana. Seperti adanya perampokan, pembunuhan,dan terjadinya korupsi. Hal itu dikarenakan kemajuan tersbut tidak dibarengi dangan bimbingan agama.
ALASAN
Setelah melihat fenomena yang terjadi pada saat ini ketika seseorang lebih mengedepankan iptek dari pada agama, hal itu menjadikan motifasi saya untuk menganbil judul ini, dengan kemajuan zaman seperti ini seseorang tidak lagi mementingkan kepetingan orang lain malaikan hanya untuk kepentingan diri pribadi dan kelompok, seperti halnya prilaku korupsi, dan penjualan obat-obat terlarang yang tanpa mereka sadari dapat menghancurkan diri sendiri orang lain, bangsa dan agama.
Sehingga mungkin dengan membuat judul seperti ini penulis dapat mengatahui pernan agama dalam kemajuan iptek akan seperti apa, jika kemajuan ini tidak dibarengi oleh agama.
Dari uraian diatas timbulah beberapa pertanyaan anatara lain:
1. Bagaiman fungsi agama di masyarakat dalam menghadapi kemajuan iptek?
2. Bagaimana dampak kemajuan iptek bagi masyarakat Kota maupun di Desa?
3. Apakah akibat dari kemajuan iptek jika tidak dibarengi dengan agama?
Showing posts with label sosiologi agama. Show all posts
Showing posts with label sosiologi agama. Show all posts
Thursday, July 30, 2009
THE ORIGIN OF MOTIVES AND VALUES IN THE FAMILY STRUCTURE
CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SUPER EGO
J.C. FLUGEL
In its classical form four main elements or sources of the super ego can be Convenient1y distinguished. As their relationships make it difficult to consider them in entire independence of one another, We shall first indicated, the general nature of, these four elements and then return in the following chapters to deal with them in greater detail
(1) In an earlier paper of great importance in the history of psycho analytic though Freud had modified his first and provisional antithesis between libido or the sexual impulse on the one hand (it will be remembered that Freud used this concept in an exceptionally wide sense) and the vaguely conceived ego impulses upon the other. The modification. Consisted in asserting that not all of the libido was connected with primitive bodily satisfactions or directed on to outer objects, but that some portion of it was, or in the process of development came to be, directed to the self (conceived as an enduring bodily and mental whole). Thus, he maintained, we love ourselves in the same way that we love outer objects, and the portion of the libido so directed to ourselves could be conveniently referred to as the narcissistic libido. In the course of further development t his portion of the libido itself undergoes differentiation. A part remain directed to ourselves as we really are, or at least as we conceive ourselves to be, the "real self." But this "real self' does not permanently satisfy our narcissism; as we develop, we become all too painfully. Aware of its defects and limitations, physical, mental, and moral; and we compensate by building up in imagination a sort of ideal self, which We would like to attain, This is the Ego – ideal and to this another portion of our narcissistic libido (the so called "secondary narcissism") in turn becomes directed. It is as though we refused to stay contented with our real self as a love object, once its deficiencies become apparent, and set out to construct a better and more worthy object, but one that still has some recognizable resemblance to the self. This process of direction of the, narcissistic libido to the ego ideal is the first source from which the superego is derived.
(2) The second source is from the process of introjections or incorporation into ones own minded of fie precepts and moral. Attitudes of others, particularly of one's parents or of other persons in loco parents, in one's youth. As a result of this process, the attitudes of impressive persons in, one's early environment (and to some extent throughout life) become a permanent part of one's own mental structure, become "second nature," as the popular expression has it. Through this process, too, moral standards and conventions become handed on from one generation to another, thus giving permanence and stability; to the codes and traditions of society.
(3) The Super ego is, as we have already noted, no direct copy of the moral standards of the community, particular, it is apt to be in many respect more severe. This greater severity if virtue of which the super ego often seems to behave aggressive and cruelly towards the ego, is traceable to various causes. But in particular it is due to recoil against the self of aggression aroused by frustrating object in the outer world. The wishes of the young child are frequently and inevitably frustrated¬ and frustrations of our desires, as all psychologists agree, tend naturally to arouse anger and aggression (the biological purpose of which is no doubt to overcome or remove the: obstacles to our desire). But in the young child aggression is very likely to be unsuccessful: first because he is too weak, and secondly because (as he learns a little later) the very persons against whom his aggression is aroused, his parents or others who are tending him, are also persons whom he loves and on whom he is dependent if he expresses his aggression too freely they punish him, and withdraw their help, love, and approval. Indeed it is man's unique and inevitable tragedy (due to his long period of helpless infancy) that he is compelled to hate those whom also hi most loves a condition which, is to some extent continued throughout life’ in his relations with his own super ego which is a centre to which both love and hate are directed and from which both love and hate emanate. But this will become clearer as we proceed. For the m moment we are. only concerned with the young child who cannot express his aggression towards its natural objects, the' frustrating parents. What is he to do with it? He cannot bang the door, kick the cat, behave rudely to some third person, or use any of the other numerous methods of discharge, which will be available to him in later life. But he always has himself as a possible object for his anger; and it was one of the remarkable discoveries of psycho analysis that, among the various lilies of displacement along which an impulse can be re directed. Turning inwards or turning against the self occupies an important place. This is what appears to happen in the present case. But the precise form in which the turning against the self here occurs (i.e., that it adds to the forces of the super ego) is probably determined to a large extent by the occurrence, at or about the same 'period, of the process of introjection to which we have just referred. The outside, forbidding, commanding persons (the parents) are introjected, i.e., are incorporated in the self in the form of the superego, and at the same time the child's aggression against these very persons is also turned against the self. Under these circumstances it seems as though the two processes tend to fuse, with the result that the inward recoiling aggression also becomes attached to the super ego. 17he superego, which represents the internalized, forbidding parents, is already endowed with the aggression naturally attributed to them as frustrating agents. It is now reinforced by the child's own aggression; and in this .way (among others) it becomes more stern, cruel, and aggressive than the actual parents
(4) The fourth source or element is more uncertain and controversial than the other three. The fierce aggressiveness with which the super ego can behave to the ego naturally suggests the co operation of another fundamental human, tendency the tendency to take pleasure in the exercise of mastery and in the infliction of pain for their own sake, over and above such domination and cruelty, as may be the inevitable accom¬paniments of aggression. The true nature of &.is sadomasochistic tendency, as it is generally called, presents a sinister puzzle to physiologist. In many of its manifestations it has an unmistakably sexual coloring. Indeed, sadism and masochism are among the best-recognized and most important sexual "perversions"; and Freud, in his conception of the libido as made up of a number of originally more or less independent "component instincts," gave both sadism and masochism a place among these instincts. It was clear, however, that in some respects they presented special prob¬lems and were different from most of the other component instincts: first in that they had no particular connection with any organ or part of the body, such as the mouth, the anus, the nose, the eye, the genitals, and secondly in the altogether peculiar way in which they combined the usually distinct and contradictory attitudes: to pleasure and pain. Later, when Freud divided the fundamental human drives into two classes, Eros and Thanatos, the life and death instincts respectively; he supposed that sadism and masochism arose from fusions of these two. McDougall had Likewise sought to explain their compound nature as fusions of sex and self assertion in the case of sadism, of sex and submission in the case of Masochism.
But, however they are constituted, there can be no doubt that, in the infliction of external punishment, sadism and perhaps to a Lesser extent, masochism play a part. It is pretty freely admitted that before. the introduction of "modern. "Enlightened," or "humanitarian" methods the profession of teacher (as to some extent all roles of authority) presented considerable opportunities for sadistic, punishment, while there is also good evidence that the pupil sometimes experienced a sexually tinged pleasure while being punished. But punishment is (or at least professes to be) itself a moral institution; and it is exercised by just such impressive authoritarian figures often indeed standing more or less officially in loco parents as those whose percepts and attitudes we interjects to form our super ego. It would not be altogether surprising then if the sadism of these authorities and the sadomasochistic relation in' which we stand to them in our external life were mirrored in the relation between the super ego and the ego in our internal life; and the element of cruelty so often actually found in the super ego seems to, support the view that the sadism of moral author ides is liable to be interjected along with other characteristic attitudes. As we shall see later, punishesment as a social or educational institution, also find an echo in the purely psychological sphere and Freud went so far as to speak of the “need for punishment,” some times experienced by the ego. The super ego indeed often takes over not only the admonishing prohibiting, and commanding functions, but also the punishing func¬tions of the external authority. To the sadism of the super ego there would then correspond masochism of the ego the roles being distributed be¬tween different aspects or (as Freud is fond of saying) "institutions" of the mind, instead of between different persons, as in the external world.
It is pretty clear that in many cases this approximates to a true description: the person concerned does seem to inflict suffering on himself and to enjoy both the process of infliction and the actual suffering. (Perhaps we can get a clearer idea of this situation if we imagine ourselves suffering from some pimple, boil, or other sore spot on our body and constantly touching this spot, although we know that it will hurt; in these. circumstances we sometimes seem to relish both the process of inflicting pain the touching, and the pain itself.) But difficulties of interpretation are apt to arise in those numerous cases when this fact of enjoyment is very hard to demonstrate. In so far as enjoyment in general, and sexually tinged enjoyment in particular, are lacking, the boundary between sadomasochism and simple aggression (our third factor) becomes obscured. With these Cases in mind, Freud was driven to distinguish a moral masochism” from the definitely sexual variety that he had in view when he classified masochism as a "Component instinct." Such "moral masochism" appears to have been short of its erotic elements, and indeed is perhaps only a manifestation of Thanatos, the death instinct or as others, suspicious of such somewhat mystic notions, might prefer to think, is just plain aggression turned against the self. It was in view of these difficulties, and of the fact that comparatively little progress has been made in our understanding of the sadomasochistic components of the super ego, that we were induced to say that this fourth element is more uncertain and controversial than the others. Nevertheless, the role of sadomasochism in external morality is often so plain, the correspondence between the external and the internal roles of punishment often so close, and the relation of sadomasochism to general aggression so far from clear, that it would be rash to deny to sadomasochistic tendencies a significant part in the nature and function of the super ego.
AGGRESSIVE ASPECTS OF THE SUPER EGO NEMESISM
Some Variety; and Example
In the last three chapters we have been dealing chiefly with the first two of the four factors, which we distinguished in the super ego, i.e., with the: creation, and influence of an ideal and with the introjection of external moral authorities. We must now turn to the, consideration of the third and fourth factors, i.e., those aspect of the super ego in which aggression predominates. Here as elsewhere, however, as the reader has been warned, it is hardly possible to maintain consistently our somewhat artificial division, and it will be found that in pursuit of our present aim we shall also be able to throw some further light upon other aspects of the super ego, including those connected with its origin and early development. At the same time, in turning to these aggressive elements, we shall become aware of certain correlative changes which the super ego appears to undergo when we look at it from t1iis new point of view. These changes may, be noted briefly at once, though their full nature and implications will, it is hoped, become clearer as we proceed. In the first place, of course, is the element of harshness or cruelty itself. Whereas in the elements we have been considering the super ego appeared to operate largely (though of course by no means exclusively) by holding before u I s a moral ideal, failure to attain which: arouses shame and guilt, the aspects with which we are now concerned rely on punishment and goading rather than on exhorta¬tion and appeal. Secondly, these new aspects are more negative and restrictive in character; they are concerned with prohibitions rather than with positive goals or ideals. In virtue of this they offer little inducement to the expansion of the ego or the development of its powers by way of sublimation or other wise. In the third place, the relations between the ego and these, aspects of the super ego are characterized by hate rather than by love; this part of the super ego corresponds to the child’s picture of the parent as a harsh 'forbidding, terrifying, and punishing being rather than as a loving, helping, and Protecting one.’ The parent, in virtue of these aspects, is no high perhaps unattainably high copy for imitation" (to use Baldwin's term), but rather a cruel, sadistic taskmaster and tyrant, who seems to take delight in placing taboos on many potentials sources of joy and satisfaction and in inflicting punishment at the slightest hint that these taboos may be infringed. Fourthly and lastly, these aspects of the super ego are more characteristically and completely unconscious in their operation. In place of art ideal of which we are at any rate in some degree aware, there arc restrictions and inhibitions, of the meaning and source of which we have often little, if any, understanding, and in the place of more or less conscious feelings of guilt for moral failures which we realize, punishment is often inflicted on us for crimes we do not recognize by a force of which we have little comprehension. Corresponding to this greater unconsciousness there is also a lesser capacity to undergo modification in the light of experience, so that this part of the super ego is liable to remain particularly archaic, un adaptable, and out of touch with, adult reality.
The differences that we have noted are of course only differences of degree and of general tendency, and it would be an easy matter to point to individual instances that seem to belie them; nevertheless, if we attempt to draw distinctions of a general kind between the aspects of the super ego with which we have been dealing and those which we are now about to consider, we believe that the distinctions will be of the kind indicated.
In the last three chapters we have of course already had occasion to deal pretty often with aggression. But this aggression had an external source in the behavior of the parents or other moral authorities, and it only became internalized and attached to the super ego as a result of the introjections. of these external authorities. The aggression with which we are now concerned has a different origin; it springs from the persons own anger and revolt against the frustrating parent figures. As we have already indicated, the arousal of such aggression is inevitable, inasmuch as parents are bound to frustrate their children in some degree, and it is likewise inevitable that a child's aggression cannot be fully and freely expressed, and this for two reasons: because the child is too weak to stand up to the opposition: of the parents, and because at the same time it loves them and is dependent on them. Unable therefore to direct this aggression against its natural object, the child must deal with it in some way: by repression, displacement, or by turning it against himself. in the very young child the capacities for both repression and displacement are probably less than at P later age; there is therefore a special likelihood of recourse being made to the re¬maining alternative. But throughout life there is a tendency for frustrated or inhibited aggression to recoil against the would be aggressor a fact well recognized by Marlowe when, in the parade of the Seven Deadly Sins before Dr. Faustus, he makes Wrath say: "I have run up and down the world with this case of rapiers, wounding myself when I had nobody to fight withal." This tendency would seem to be of such fundamental importance as to merit a special name by which it can conveniently be designated. we propose here to adopt Rosenzweig's suggestion and to use the term "nemesis" as an alternative and technical term for "aggression turned against the self." Such a term has the advantage of being easily compared and contrasted with the already familiar "narcissism," which designates the comparable process of love directed to the self.
The tendency, however, in spite of its importance, has, at any rate until quite recently, received but little notice from psychologists. Other than psychoanalysts, so that it is perhaps worthwhile to familiarize our¬ selves with it by means of a few simple examples. We may begin with some, which illustrate the common case (particularly important for us here) where a person's aggression against himself takes the form factually reinforcing the opposition or frustration due to a parent. Since in such cases the parents commands and the child's aggression manifest them selves in the same direction, it is a rather easy for the existence of the second factor to be overlooked, but when we study the child's behavior from the quantitative rather than the qualitative point of view we see that it exhibits a certain characteristic exaggeration or over intensification which dis-tinguishes it from the conduct that would result from a simple copying or introjections of the Parents' attitude; in other words, there is over obedience rather than a simple straightforward compliance.
The other day I was watching a mother feed her little girl of two. the child resisted the soup that was being offered her in a spoon and endeavored to push away the mother's hand with considerable show of force and displeasure. After a while, however, the mother still persisting, the child suddenly altered her behavior, seized the spoon herself and, without changing in any other way her combative expression, pushed it into her own mouth with 4ulte unnecessary violence and poured the con¬tents down ' her throat. There occurred indeed a quite unmistakable reversal in the direction of the child's aggression; from being directed against the mother, it was tamed against the child's own self, in a way that fulfilled the mothers wishes, but with a kind of savage energy that was quite foreign to the mother's attitude. Here there was no mere copying of the mother, no simple adoption of her role, but an addition to it of a new element derived from the child's own aggressiveness, suddenly directed against herself instead of against the outer world. In this little incident we see an example of the way in which the nemesis tic element of autogenously aggression complicates and distorts the picture that would result from mere adoption and introjections of the parents' moral attitude
J.C. FLUGEL
In its classical form four main elements or sources of the super ego can be Convenient1y distinguished. As their relationships make it difficult to consider them in entire independence of one another, We shall first indicated, the general nature of, these four elements and then return in the following chapters to deal with them in greater detail
(1) In an earlier paper of great importance in the history of psycho analytic though Freud had modified his first and provisional antithesis between libido or the sexual impulse on the one hand (it will be remembered that Freud used this concept in an exceptionally wide sense) and the vaguely conceived ego impulses upon the other. The modification. Consisted in asserting that not all of the libido was connected with primitive bodily satisfactions or directed on to outer objects, but that some portion of it was, or in the process of development came to be, directed to the self (conceived as an enduring bodily and mental whole). Thus, he maintained, we love ourselves in the same way that we love outer objects, and the portion of the libido so directed to ourselves could be conveniently referred to as the narcissistic libido. In the course of further development t his portion of the libido itself undergoes differentiation. A part remain directed to ourselves as we really are, or at least as we conceive ourselves to be, the "real self." But this "real self' does not permanently satisfy our narcissism; as we develop, we become all too painfully. Aware of its defects and limitations, physical, mental, and moral; and we compensate by building up in imagination a sort of ideal self, which We would like to attain, This is the Ego – ideal and to this another portion of our narcissistic libido (the so called "secondary narcissism") in turn becomes directed. It is as though we refused to stay contented with our real self as a love object, once its deficiencies become apparent, and set out to construct a better and more worthy object, but one that still has some recognizable resemblance to the self. This process of direction of the, narcissistic libido to the ego ideal is the first source from which the superego is derived.
(2) The second source is from the process of introjections or incorporation into ones own minded of fie precepts and moral. Attitudes of others, particularly of one's parents or of other persons in loco parents, in one's youth. As a result of this process, the attitudes of impressive persons in, one's early environment (and to some extent throughout life) become a permanent part of one's own mental structure, become "second nature," as the popular expression has it. Through this process, too, moral standards and conventions become handed on from one generation to another, thus giving permanence and stability; to the codes and traditions of society.
(3) The Super ego is, as we have already noted, no direct copy of the moral standards of the community, particular, it is apt to be in many respect more severe. This greater severity if virtue of which the super ego often seems to behave aggressive and cruelly towards the ego, is traceable to various causes. But in particular it is due to recoil against the self of aggression aroused by frustrating object in the outer world. The wishes of the young child are frequently and inevitably frustrated¬ and frustrations of our desires, as all psychologists agree, tend naturally to arouse anger and aggression (the biological purpose of which is no doubt to overcome or remove the: obstacles to our desire). But in the young child aggression is very likely to be unsuccessful: first because he is too weak, and secondly because (as he learns a little later) the very persons against whom his aggression is aroused, his parents or others who are tending him, are also persons whom he loves and on whom he is dependent if he expresses his aggression too freely they punish him, and withdraw their help, love, and approval. Indeed it is man's unique and inevitable tragedy (due to his long period of helpless infancy) that he is compelled to hate those whom also hi most loves a condition which, is to some extent continued throughout life’ in his relations with his own super ego which is a centre to which both love and hate are directed and from which both love and hate emanate. But this will become clearer as we proceed. For the m moment we are. only concerned with the young child who cannot express his aggression towards its natural objects, the' frustrating parents. What is he to do with it? He cannot bang the door, kick the cat, behave rudely to some third person, or use any of the other numerous methods of discharge, which will be available to him in later life. But he always has himself as a possible object for his anger; and it was one of the remarkable discoveries of psycho analysis that, among the various lilies of displacement along which an impulse can be re directed. Turning inwards or turning against the self occupies an important place. This is what appears to happen in the present case. But the precise form in which the turning against the self here occurs (i.e., that it adds to the forces of the super ego) is probably determined to a large extent by the occurrence, at or about the same 'period, of the process of introjection to which we have just referred. The outside, forbidding, commanding persons (the parents) are introjected, i.e., are incorporated in the self in the form of the superego, and at the same time the child's aggression against these very persons is also turned against the self. Under these circumstances it seems as though the two processes tend to fuse, with the result that the inward recoiling aggression also becomes attached to the super ego. 17he superego, which represents the internalized, forbidding parents, is already endowed with the aggression naturally attributed to them as frustrating agents. It is now reinforced by the child's own aggression; and in this .way (among others) it becomes more stern, cruel, and aggressive than the actual parents
(4) The fourth source or element is more uncertain and controversial than the other three. The fierce aggressiveness with which the super ego can behave to the ego naturally suggests the co operation of another fundamental human, tendency the tendency to take pleasure in the exercise of mastery and in the infliction of pain for their own sake, over and above such domination and cruelty, as may be the inevitable accom¬paniments of aggression. The true nature of &.is sadomasochistic tendency, as it is generally called, presents a sinister puzzle to physiologist. In many of its manifestations it has an unmistakably sexual coloring. Indeed, sadism and masochism are among the best-recognized and most important sexual "perversions"; and Freud, in his conception of the libido as made up of a number of originally more or less independent "component instincts," gave both sadism and masochism a place among these instincts. It was clear, however, that in some respects they presented special prob¬lems and were different from most of the other component instincts: first in that they had no particular connection with any organ or part of the body, such as the mouth, the anus, the nose, the eye, the genitals, and secondly in the altogether peculiar way in which they combined the usually distinct and contradictory attitudes: to pleasure and pain. Later, when Freud divided the fundamental human drives into two classes, Eros and Thanatos, the life and death instincts respectively; he supposed that sadism and masochism arose from fusions of these two. McDougall had Likewise sought to explain their compound nature as fusions of sex and self assertion in the case of sadism, of sex and submission in the case of Masochism.
But, however they are constituted, there can be no doubt that, in the infliction of external punishment, sadism and perhaps to a Lesser extent, masochism play a part. It is pretty freely admitted that before. the introduction of "modern. "Enlightened," or "humanitarian" methods the profession of teacher (as to some extent all roles of authority) presented considerable opportunities for sadistic, punishment, while there is also good evidence that the pupil sometimes experienced a sexually tinged pleasure while being punished. But punishment is (or at least professes to be) itself a moral institution; and it is exercised by just such impressive authoritarian figures often indeed standing more or less officially in loco parents as those whose percepts and attitudes we interjects to form our super ego. It would not be altogether surprising then if the sadism of these authorities and the sadomasochistic relation in' which we stand to them in our external life were mirrored in the relation between the super ego and the ego in our internal life; and the element of cruelty so often actually found in the super ego seems to, support the view that the sadism of moral author ides is liable to be interjected along with other characteristic attitudes. As we shall see later, punishesment as a social or educational institution, also find an echo in the purely psychological sphere and Freud went so far as to speak of the “need for punishment,” some times experienced by the ego. The super ego indeed often takes over not only the admonishing prohibiting, and commanding functions, but also the punishing func¬tions of the external authority. To the sadism of the super ego there would then correspond masochism of the ego the roles being distributed be¬tween different aspects or (as Freud is fond of saying) "institutions" of the mind, instead of between different persons, as in the external world.
It is pretty clear that in many cases this approximates to a true description: the person concerned does seem to inflict suffering on himself and to enjoy both the process of infliction and the actual suffering. (Perhaps we can get a clearer idea of this situation if we imagine ourselves suffering from some pimple, boil, or other sore spot on our body and constantly touching this spot, although we know that it will hurt; in these. circumstances we sometimes seem to relish both the process of inflicting pain the touching, and the pain itself.) But difficulties of interpretation are apt to arise in those numerous cases when this fact of enjoyment is very hard to demonstrate. In so far as enjoyment in general, and sexually tinged enjoyment in particular, are lacking, the boundary between sadomasochism and simple aggression (our third factor) becomes obscured. With these Cases in mind, Freud was driven to distinguish a moral masochism” from the definitely sexual variety that he had in view when he classified masochism as a "Component instinct." Such "moral masochism" appears to have been short of its erotic elements, and indeed is perhaps only a manifestation of Thanatos, the death instinct or as others, suspicious of such somewhat mystic notions, might prefer to think, is just plain aggression turned against the self. It was in view of these difficulties, and of the fact that comparatively little progress has been made in our understanding of the sadomasochistic components of the super ego, that we were induced to say that this fourth element is more uncertain and controversial than the others. Nevertheless, the role of sadomasochism in external morality is often so plain, the correspondence between the external and the internal roles of punishment often so close, and the relation of sadomasochism to general aggression so far from clear, that it would be rash to deny to sadomasochistic tendencies a significant part in the nature and function of the super ego.
AGGRESSIVE ASPECTS OF THE SUPER EGO NEMESISM
Some Variety; and Example
In the last three chapters we have been dealing chiefly with the first two of the four factors, which we distinguished in the super ego, i.e., with the: creation, and influence of an ideal and with the introjection of external moral authorities. We must now turn to the, consideration of the third and fourth factors, i.e., those aspect of the super ego in which aggression predominates. Here as elsewhere, however, as the reader has been warned, it is hardly possible to maintain consistently our somewhat artificial division, and it will be found that in pursuit of our present aim we shall also be able to throw some further light upon other aspects of the super ego, including those connected with its origin and early development. At the same time, in turning to these aggressive elements, we shall become aware of certain correlative changes which the super ego appears to undergo when we look at it from t1iis new point of view. These changes may, be noted briefly at once, though their full nature and implications will, it is hoped, become clearer as we proceed. In the first place, of course, is the element of harshness or cruelty itself. Whereas in the elements we have been considering the super ego appeared to operate largely (though of course by no means exclusively) by holding before u I s a moral ideal, failure to attain which: arouses shame and guilt, the aspects with which we are now concerned rely on punishment and goading rather than on exhorta¬tion and appeal. Secondly, these new aspects are more negative and restrictive in character; they are concerned with prohibitions rather than with positive goals or ideals. In virtue of this they offer little inducement to the expansion of the ego or the development of its powers by way of sublimation or other wise. In the third place, the relations between the ego and these, aspects of the super ego are characterized by hate rather than by love; this part of the super ego corresponds to the child’s picture of the parent as a harsh 'forbidding, terrifying, and punishing being rather than as a loving, helping, and Protecting one.’ The parent, in virtue of these aspects, is no high perhaps unattainably high copy for imitation" (to use Baldwin's term), but rather a cruel, sadistic taskmaster and tyrant, who seems to take delight in placing taboos on many potentials sources of joy and satisfaction and in inflicting punishment at the slightest hint that these taboos may be infringed. Fourthly and lastly, these aspects of the super ego are more characteristically and completely unconscious in their operation. In place of art ideal of which we are at any rate in some degree aware, there arc restrictions and inhibitions, of the meaning and source of which we have often little, if any, understanding, and in the place of more or less conscious feelings of guilt for moral failures which we realize, punishment is often inflicted on us for crimes we do not recognize by a force of which we have little comprehension. Corresponding to this greater unconsciousness there is also a lesser capacity to undergo modification in the light of experience, so that this part of the super ego is liable to remain particularly archaic, un adaptable, and out of touch with, adult reality.
The differences that we have noted are of course only differences of degree and of general tendency, and it would be an easy matter to point to individual instances that seem to belie them; nevertheless, if we attempt to draw distinctions of a general kind between the aspects of the super ego with which we have been dealing and those which we are now about to consider, we believe that the distinctions will be of the kind indicated.
In the last three chapters we have of course already had occasion to deal pretty often with aggression. But this aggression had an external source in the behavior of the parents or other moral authorities, and it only became internalized and attached to the super ego as a result of the introjections. of these external authorities. The aggression with which we are now concerned has a different origin; it springs from the persons own anger and revolt against the frustrating parent figures. As we have already indicated, the arousal of such aggression is inevitable, inasmuch as parents are bound to frustrate their children in some degree, and it is likewise inevitable that a child's aggression cannot be fully and freely expressed, and this for two reasons: because the child is too weak to stand up to the opposition: of the parents, and because at the same time it loves them and is dependent on them. Unable therefore to direct this aggression against its natural object, the child must deal with it in some way: by repression, displacement, or by turning it against himself. in the very young child the capacities for both repression and displacement are probably less than at P later age; there is therefore a special likelihood of recourse being made to the re¬maining alternative. But throughout life there is a tendency for frustrated or inhibited aggression to recoil against the would be aggressor a fact well recognized by Marlowe when, in the parade of the Seven Deadly Sins before Dr. Faustus, he makes Wrath say: "I have run up and down the world with this case of rapiers, wounding myself when I had nobody to fight withal." This tendency would seem to be of such fundamental importance as to merit a special name by which it can conveniently be designated. we propose here to adopt Rosenzweig's suggestion and to use the term "nemesis" as an alternative and technical term for "aggression turned against the self." Such a term has the advantage of being easily compared and contrasted with the already familiar "narcissism," which designates the comparable process of love directed to the self.
The tendency, however, in spite of its importance, has, at any rate until quite recently, received but little notice from psychologists. Other than psychoanalysts, so that it is perhaps worthwhile to familiarize our¬ selves with it by means of a few simple examples. We may begin with some, which illustrate the common case (particularly important for us here) where a person's aggression against himself takes the form factually reinforcing the opposition or frustration due to a parent. Since in such cases the parents commands and the child's aggression manifest them selves in the same direction, it is a rather easy for the existence of the second factor to be overlooked, but when we study the child's behavior from the quantitative rather than the qualitative point of view we see that it exhibits a certain characteristic exaggeration or over intensification which dis-tinguishes it from the conduct that would result from a simple copying or introjections of the Parents' attitude; in other words, there is over obedience rather than a simple straightforward compliance.
The other day I was watching a mother feed her little girl of two. the child resisted the soup that was being offered her in a spoon and endeavored to push away the mother's hand with considerable show of force and displeasure. After a while, however, the mother still persisting, the child suddenly altered her behavior, seized the spoon herself and, without changing in any other way her combative expression, pushed it into her own mouth with 4ulte unnecessary violence and poured the con¬tents down ' her throat. There occurred indeed a quite unmistakable reversal in the direction of the child's aggression; from being directed against the mother, it was tamed against the child's own self, in a way that fulfilled the mothers wishes, but with a kind of savage energy that was quite foreign to the mother's attitude. Here there was no mere copying of the mother, no simple adoption of her role, but an addition to it of a new element derived from the child's own aggressiveness, suddenly directed against herself instead of against the outer world. In this little incident we see an example of the way in which the nemesis tic element of autogenously aggression complicates and distorts the picture that would result from mere adoption and introjections of the parents' moral attitude
WAWASAN PSIKOLOGI ISLAMI
A. Psikologi Islami Sebuah Nama
Berlainan dengan sikap skeptis terhadap nama yang tercermin dalam sebuah pertanyaan termasyhur “What’s in a name” Dalam salah satu drama klasik shekes pear, Hellen Keller seorang cendikiawati penyandang cacat ganda, tunanetra, tunarungu dan tunawicara, mengalami sendiri betapa pentingnya nama. Dalam “Everything has a name” Ia menulis betapa cakrawala pemikirannya menjadi terbuka luas saat menyadari bahwa segala sesuatu ada namanya.
Islam pun memandang nama sangat penting. Nama identik dengan terminology, dan terminology Ekuivalen dengan konsep, sedangkan kondep merupakan produk penting dari akal budi manusia. Melalui sebuah nema sering kita mendapat gambaran mengenai karakteristik sesuatu, minimal mengetahui apa dan siapa yang diberi nama itu. Pemberi nama berarti memberi identitas yang manandakan eksisnya sesuatu. Dengan demikian “ What’s in a name?” sebagai sub-judul tulisan ini sama sekali tidak skeptis terhadap Psikologi Islami, tetapi merukan ajakan serius untuk bersama-sama memikirkan unsur-unsur penting yang menjadi pilar Psikologi Islami.
PSIKOLOGI ISLAM. Dengan menunjang nama ini diharapkan secara langsung trgambar karakteristik dan identitasnta yang semuanya bermuara pada nialai-nilai Islami. Dan sebagai wadah yang masih menanti kelngkapan isi, rasa-rasanya nama itu lebih luwes dan luas ketimbang nama-nama lain untuk sebuah gerakan islamisasi psikologi yang saat ini yang memerlukan kesepakatan lebih lanjut dari para psikolog muslim mengenai wawasan, landasan, rumusan, ruang lingkup, fungsi, tujuan dan metodeloginya.
B.Psikologi Islami Wawasan dan landasan
Dalam QS. Al-fushshilat (41) ayat 53 berfirman Allah SWT:
Kami akan memperlibatkan kepada mereka tanda-tanda (kekuasaan) kami di sebenap ufuk dan pada diri mereka sendiri, sehingga jelaslah bagi mereka bahwa Al- qur’an itu adalah benar. Dan apakah Tuhanmu itu cukup (bagimu) bahwa sesungguhnya Dia menyaksikan segala sesuatu?
Dari firman Rabbani itu tersirat ada tiga ragam ayat Tuhan sebagai tanda keagunganNya yakni:
a. Ayat-ayat Qur’ani: diwahyukan dalam bahasa manusia kepada Rasul (Muhammad SAW), kemudian dituliskan dan dihimpun berupa kitab suci (al-Qur’an Karim).
b. Ayat-ayat Aafaaqi: ketentuan Tuhan yang ada dan bekerja pada alam semesta, khususnya alam fisik.
c. Ayat-ayat Nafsani: ketentuan Tuhan yang ada dan bekerja pada diri manusia, termasuk kejiwaanya.
Ayat-ayat aafaaqi dan ayat-ayat nafsani lazim disebut sunatullah, yakni ayat-ayat Tuhan yang “tertulis” dalam semesta ciptaanNya dan berproses di dalamnya berupa The law of nature atau Hukum Alam (H ukum Allah).
Dalam hal ini psikologi harus dilihat sebagai upaya manusia untuk membuka rahasia sunatullah yang bekerja pada diri manusia (ayat-ayat nafsani), dalam artian menemukan berbagai asas, unsure, proses, fungsi dan hokum-hukum mengenai kejiwaan manusia.
Berbeda dengan psikologi kontemporer-sekuler yang dapat dikatakan menggunakan semata-mata kemampuan intelektual untuk menemukan dan mengungkapkan asas-asas kejiwaan, psikologi islami mendekatinya dengan memfungsikan akal dan keimanan sekaligus, yakni menggunakan secara optimal daya nalar yang obyektif-ilmiah dengan metodologi yang tepat, di samping merujuk pada petunjukNya mengenai manusia yang tertera dalam al-Qur’an Maha benar dan al Hadits yang absah serta pandangan para ulam yang teruji. Dengan demikian landasan psikologi Islami adalah ayat-ayat Qur’ani dan ayat-ayat nafsani yang dukung mendukung asas-asas keagamaan dan temuan-temuan iptek di bidang kemanusiaan.
Psikologi Islami adalah psikologi, dan ia adalah sains yang mempunyai persyratan-persyaratan ketat, sebagai sains. Scientific merupakan cirri utama psikologi Islami, karena ia adalah Science, dalam psikologi Islami sama sekali tidak ada pencampurbauran antara psikologi dengan agama atau produksian fenomena keagamaan menjadi semata-mata proses psikologi.
B. Tujuan dan fungsi-fungsinya
Ilmu pengetahuan secara sains mempunyai tiga fungsi utama yaitu:
1. Fungsi pemadaman (understanding), memahami seperti apa adanya dan dapat memberikan penjelasan yang benar, masuk akal dan islamiah mengenai berbagai gejala alam dan peristiwa yang berkaitan denga kehidupan manusia,eksistensi dan relasi antar manusia.
2. Fungsi pengendalian (control) memberi arah yang tepat-guna dan berhasil-guna untuk berbagai kegiatan manusia, serta memanfaatkan temuan-temuan ilmiah secara benar untuk meningkatkan kesejahtraan hidup manusia dan pengembangan ilmu dan teknologi. Di samping itu mencegah panyalah gunaan asas-asas dan temuan-temuan sains dan salah menggunakan penerapan teknologi, serta turut menanggulangi kerugian-kerugian yang ditimbulkannya.
3. Fungsi peramalan (prediction) memberi gambaran mengenai kondisi kehidupan di masa mendatang serta memperkirakan hal-hal yang akan terjadi pada priode waktu tertentu. Peramalan tentang keadaan mendatang diperoleh berdasarkan data akurat yang tersedia waktu ini yang diolah melalui metodelogi dan prosedur ilmiah.
Ketiga fungsi tersebut berlaku sepenuhnya bagi psikologi, ia diharapkan dapat menerangkan berbgai gejala prilaku manusia dan corak prilaku manusia serta kehidupannya,disamping dapat memanfaatkan hasil-hasil temuan psikologi untuk meningkatkan kesehatan mental dan kesejahtraan hidup manusia, serta mencagah adanya malpraktek dan mengatasi efek-efek negatif.
Disamping itu pada dasarnya tujuan psikologi dapat menunjang tujuan utama psikologi, dalam perkembangan kondisi kesehatan mental pada diri pribadi dan masyarakat, yang tolak ukurnya mencakup sebagai berikut:
Bebas dari gangguan dan penyakit kejiwaan
Mampu menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungan sekitarnya
dapat merealisasikan berbagai potensi, seperti kemampuan,bakat, sikap, sifat, keterampilan dan lingkungan menjadi benar-benar aktuan dan bermanfaat.
Psikologi sangat erat kaitannya dengan nilai-nilai Islami, dan pengembangannya ada pada tahap awal, maka psikologi Islami sekurang-kurangnya perlu menambah dengan dua fungsi lainnya, yaitu: fungsi pengembangandan fungsi pendidikan.
a. Fungsi pengembangan (development)
psikologi Islami, menyusun tiori-tiori baru, menyempurnakan metodelogi dan menciptakan secara kreatif berbagai tehnik dan berbagai pendekatan psikologis.Salah satu usaha psikologi dalam pengembangan ilmu adalah dengan melakukan pembandingan (komparasi) antara psikologi modern dengan tema-tema dengan kemanusiaan yang dijabarkan dari al-Qur’an, al-Hadist dan pandangan para ulama.
Selain itu perkembangan psikologi Islami dapat diusahaka melalui penelitian empiris yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan kebaragamaan atau penelitian tentang praktek ibadah yang buktinya dapat terbukti dalam kaimanan dan ketakwaan seseorang, psikologi ini sering dilakukan oleh psikologi Transpersonal dalam meneliti potensi luhur manusia.
b. Fungsi pendidikan (education)
Hakekat pendidika adalah meningkatkan kualitas sumberdaya manusia, misalnya dari keadaan tidak tahu manjadi tahu, dari baik menjadi baik. Dalam melaksanakan fungsi pendidikan ini disarankan agar psikologi Islami menjabarkan dan memaparkan prinsip pengubahan prinsip manusia seperti yang tercantum dalam Q.S al-Ra’d (13) ayat11
Tujuan dari psikologi Islami itu sendiri memiliki misi utama, yang bukan hanya untuk mmengembangkan kesehatan mental pada diri pribadi dan masyarakat, melainkan juga meningkatkan keimanan dan ketakwaan kepada Tuhan yang Maha Esa. Denagn demikian tujuan psikologi Islami adalah membantu orang-orang manjadi sehat mentalnya dan sekaligus meningkatkan keimanan dan ketakwaannya, menjadi mukmin dan muttaqin.
Jangkauan psikologi Islami lebih luas, antara lain dalam fungsi dan tujuan serta ruanglingkupnya. Kalau fungsi psikologi umunya hanya berkisar sektar pemahaman, pengendalian, dan peramalan, psikologi Islami manambahnaya dengan fungsi pengembangan ilmu dan pendidikan. Selain itu tujuan psikologi untuk pengambangan mental yang sehat pada diri pribadi dan masyarakat, dilengkapi psikologi Islami dengan inti kesehatan mental dan iman takwa kepada Tuhan.
TUJUAN.
Untuk mengetahui wawasan dan landasan psikologi
Untuk mengtahui dan fungsi-fungsi psikologi
Dapat mengetahui Ruang lingkup psikologi
Untuk mengetahui metode ilmiah yang ada pada psikologi.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA.
Hanna Djumhana Bataman, Integrasi psikologi dengan Islam, Pustaka pelajar, Yogyakarta, 2001.
Al-Ghazali, Dimensi psikologi dari ajaran Al-Ghazali mengenai manusia, Pramadina, Jakarta, 1994
Jurnal ulumul Qur’an, Corak Filosofis psikologi Islam, 1993.
Berlainan dengan sikap skeptis terhadap nama yang tercermin dalam sebuah pertanyaan termasyhur “What’s in a name” Dalam salah satu drama klasik shekes pear, Hellen Keller seorang cendikiawati penyandang cacat ganda, tunanetra, tunarungu dan tunawicara, mengalami sendiri betapa pentingnya nama. Dalam “Everything has a name” Ia menulis betapa cakrawala pemikirannya menjadi terbuka luas saat menyadari bahwa segala sesuatu ada namanya.
Islam pun memandang nama sangat penting. Nama identik dengan terminology, dan terminology Ekuivalen dengan konsep, sedangkan kondep merupakan produk penting dari akal budi manusia. Melalui sebuah nema sering kita mendapat gambaran mengenai karakteristik sesuatu, minimal mengetahui apa dan siapa yang diberi nama itu. Pemberi nama berarti memberi identitas yang manandakan eksisnya sesuatu. Dengan demikian “ What’s in a name?” sebagai sub-judul tulisan ini sama sekali tidak skeptis terhadap Psikologi Islami, tetapi merukan ajakan serius untuk bersama-sama memikirkan unsur-unsur penting yang menjadi pilar Psikologi Islami.
PSIKOLOGI ISLAM. Dengan menunjang nama ini diharapkan secara langsung trgambar karakteristik dan identitasnta yang semuanya bermuara pada nialai-nilai Islami. Dan sebagai wadah yang masih menanti kelngkapan isi, rasa-rasanya nama itu lebih luwes dan luas ketimbang nama-nama lain untuk sebuah gerakan islamisasi psikologi yang saat ini yang memerlukan kesepakatan lebih lanjut dari para psikolog muslim mengenai wawasan, landasan, rumusan, ruang lingkup, fungsi, tujuan dan metodeloginya.
B.Psikologi Islami Wawasan dan landasan
Dalam QS. Al-fushshilat (41) ayat 53 berfirman Allah SWT:
Kami akan memperlibatkan kepada mereka tanda-tanda (kekuasaan) kami di sebenap ufuk dan pada diri mereka sendiri, sehingga jelaslah bagi mereka bahwa Al- qur’an itu adalah benar. Dan apakah Tuhanmu itu cukup (bagimu) bahwa sesungguhnya Dia menyaksikan segala sesuatu?
Dari firman Rabbani itu tersirat ada tiga ragam ayat Tuhan sebagai tanda keagunganNya yakni:
a. Ayat-ayat Qur’ani: diwahyukan dalam bahasa manusia kepada Rasul (Muhammad SAW), kemudian dituliskan dan dihimpun berupa kitab suci (al-Qur’an Karim).
b. Ayat-ayat Aafaaqi: ketentuan Tuhan yang ada dan bekerja pada alam semesta, khususnya alam fisik.
c. Ayat-ayat Nafsani: ketentuan Tuhan yang ada dan bekerja pada diri manusia, termasuk kejiwaanya.
Ayat-ayat aafaaqi dan ayat-ayat nafsani lazim disebut sunatullah, yakni ayat-ayat Tuhan yang “tertulis” dalam semesta ciptaanNya dan berproses di dalamnya berupa The law of nature atau Hukum Alam (H ukum Allah).
Dalam hal ini psikologi harus dilihat sebagai upaya manusia untuk membuka rahasia sunatullah yang bekerja pada diri manusia (ayat-ayat nafsani), dalam artian menemukan berbagai asas, unsure, proses, fungsi dan hokum-hukum mengenai kejiwaan manusia.
Berbeda dengan psikologi kontemporer-sekuler yang dapat dikatakan menggunakan semata-mata kemampuan intelektual untuk menemukan dan mengungkapkan asas-asas kejiwaan, psikologi islami mendekatinya dengan memfungsikan akal dan keimanan sekaligus, yakni menggunakan secara optimal daya nalar yang obyektif-ilmiah dengan metodologi yang tepat, di samping merujuk pada petunjukNya mengenai manusia yang tertera dalam al-Qur’an Maha benar dan al Hadits yang absah serta pandangan para ulam yang teruji. Dengan demikian landasan psikologi Islami adalah ayat-ayat Qur’ani dan ayat-ayat nafsani yang dukung mendukung asas-asas keagamaan dan temuan-temuan iptek di bidang kemanusiaan.
Psikologi Islami adalah psikologi, dan ia adalah sains yang mempunyai persyratan-persyaratan ketat, sebagai sains. Scientific merupakan cirri utama psikologi Islami, karena ia adalah Science, dalam psikologi Islami sama sekali tidak ada pencampurbauran antara psikologi dengan agama atau produksian fenomena keagamaan menjadi semata-mata proses psikologi.
B. Tujuan dan fungsi-fungsinya
Ilmu pengetahuan secara sains mempunyai tiga fungsi utama yaitu:
1. Fungsi pemadaman (understanding), memahami seperti apa adanya dan dapat memberikan penjelasan yang benar, masuk akal dan islamiah mengenai berbagai gejala alam dan peristiwa yang berkaitan denga kehidupan manusia,eksistensi dan relasi antar manusia.
2. Fungsi pengendalian (control) memberi arah yang tepat-guna dan berhasil-guna untuk berbagai kegiatan manusia, serta memanfaatkan temuan-temuan ilmiah secara benar untuk meningkatkan kesejahtraan hidup manusia dan pengembangan ilmu dan teknologi. Di samping itu mencegah panyalah gunaan asas-asas dan temuan-temuan sains dan salah menggunakan penerapan teknologi, serta turut menanggulangi kerugian-kerugian yang ditimbulkannya.
3. Fungsi peramalan (prediction) memberi gambaran mengenai kondisi kehidupan di masa mendatang serta memperkirakan hal-hal yang akan terjadi pada priode waktu tertentu. Peramalan tentang keadaan mendatang diperoleh berdasarkan data akurat yang tersedia waktu ini yang diolah melalui metodelogi dan prosedur ilmiah.
Ketiga fungsi tersebut berlaku sepenuhnya bagi psikologi, ia diharapkan dapat menerangkan berbgai gejala prilaku manusia dan corak prilaku manusia serta kehidupannya,disamping dapat memanfaatkan hasil-hasil temuan psikologi untuk meningkatkan kesehatan mental dan kesejahtraan hidup manusia, serta mencagah adanya malpraktek dan mengatasi efek-efek negatif.
Disamping itu pada dasarnya tujuan psikologi dapat menunjang tujuan utama psikologi, dalam perkembangan kondisi kesehatan mental pada diri pribadi dan masyarakat, yang tolak ukurnya mencakup sebagai berikut:
Bebas dari gangguan dan penyakit kejiwaan
Mampu menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungan sekitarnya
dapat merealisasikan berbagai potensi, seperti kemampuan,bakat, sikap, sifat, keterampilan dan lingkungan menjadi benar-benar aktuan dan bermanfaat.
Psikologi sangat erat kaitannya dengan nilai-nilai Islami, dan pengembangannya ada pada tahap awal, maka psikologi Islami sekurang-kurangnya perlu menambah dengan dua fungsi lainnya, yaitu: fungsi pengembangandan fungsi pendidikan.
a. Fungsi pengembangan (development)
psikologi Islami, menyusun tiori-tiori baru, menyempurnakan metodelogi dan menciptakan secara kreatif berbagai tehnik dan berbagai pendekatan psikologis.Salah satu usaha psikologi dalam pengembangan ilmu adalah dengan melakukan pembandingan (komparasi) antara psikologi modern dengan tema-tema dengan kemanusiaan yang dijabarkan dari al-Qur’an, al-Hadist dan pandangan para ulama.
Selain itu perkembangan psikologi Islami dapat diusahaka melalui penelitian empiris yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan kebaragamaan atau penelitian tentang praktek ibadah yang buktinya dapat terbukti dalam kaimanan dan ketakwaan seseorang, psikologi ini sering dilakukan oleh psikologi Transpersonal dalam meneliti potensi luhur manusia.
b. Fungsi pendidikan (education)
Hakekat pendidika adalah meningkatkan kualitas sumberdaya manusia, misalnya dari keadaan tidak tahu manjadi tahu, dari baik menjadi baik. Dalam melaksanakan fungsi pendidikan ini disarankan agar psikologi Islami menjabarkan dan memaparkan prinsip pengubahan prinsip manusia seperti yang tercantum dalam Q.S al-Ra’d (13) ayat11
Tujuan dari psikologi Islami itu sendiri memiliki misi utama, yang bukan hanya untuk mmengembangkan kesehatan mental pada diri pribadi dan masyarakat, melainkan juga meningkatkan keimanan dan ketakwaan kepada Tuhan yang Maha Esa. Denagn demikian tujuan psikologi Islami adalah membantu orang-orang manjadi sehat mentalnya dan sekaligus meningkatkan keimanan dan ketakwaannya, menjadi mukmin dan muttaqin.
Jangkauan psikologi Islami lebih luas, antara lain dalam fungsi dan tujuan serta ruanglingkupnya. Kalau fungsi psikologi umunya hanya berkisar sektar pemahaman, pengendalian, dan peramalan, psikologi Islami manambahnaya dengan fungsi pengembangan ilmu dan pendidikan. Selain itu tujuan psikologi untuk pengambangan mental yang sehat pada diri pribadi dan masyarakat, dilengkapi psikologi Islami dengan inti kesehatan mental dan iman takwa kepada Tuhan.
TUJUAN.
Untuk mengetahui wawasan dan landasan psikologi
Untuk mengtahui dan fungsi-fungsi psikologi
Dapat mengetahui Ruang lingkup psikologi
Untuk mengetahui metode ilmiah yang ada pada psikologi.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA.
Hanna Djumhana Bataman, Integrasi psikologi dengan Islam, Pustaka pelajar, Yogyakarta, 2001.
Al-Ghazali, Dimensi psikologi dari ajaran Al-Ghazali mengenai manusia, Pramadina, Jakarta, 1994
Jurnal ulumul Qur’an, Corak Filosofis psikologi Islam, 1993.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
